The Non-Crucifixion Verse A Historical, Contextual, and Linguistic Analysis
Main Article Content
Keywords
Jesus, Crucifixion, Bible, Talmud, Intertextuality
Abstract
Over the centuries, there has been almost a consensus among Muslims and non-Muslims that the crucifixion of Jesus is denied in the Qur’an, mainly because of al-Nisāʾ 4:157. This overwhelmingly accepted interpretation has been challenged in recent times, albeit by a small minority of scholars, by suggesting novel interpretations of 4:157 and seeking support from history and other verses. This study first reviews how, from the early days of Islam, denying the crucifixion of Jesus was always seen by both Muslims and non-Muslims as the established Islamic view. It analyses the theological arguments of the minority view, promoted by some early Ismāʿīlī scholars and modern scholars, that the Qur’an does not deny Jesus’ crucifixion. A new attempt, which has been gathering some support, linking 4:157 to the Talmud is then critiqued. This study shows that the immediate context of 4:157 and the broader Qur’anic narrative also refute the new interpretation. A detailed linguistic analysis of the verse in question further shows that it cannot be reasonably read to mean anything other than rejecting that Jesus was crucified. In summary, history and a detailed study of 4:157 and related verses show that there is hardly any basis to justify challenging the centuries-long semi-consensus that the Qur’an denies the crucifixion of Jesus.
References
Endnotes
1 The text of 4:157 is identical in all fourteen canonical and non-canonical readings
(qirāʾās) of the Qur’an.
2 Louay Fatoohi, “The End of Jesus’ Life on Earth in the Qur’ān”, Australian Journal
of Islamic Studies 8 (2023), no. 1.
3 Muḥammad Ibn Jarīr Al-Ṭabarī, Jāmiʿ al-bayān ʿan taʾwīl ʾāy al-Qurʾān, ed. ʿAbd
Allāh al-Turkī (24 vols.; Al-Ihsa: Dār Hajr, 2001), vol. 5, 447-453.
4 Muḥammad Ibn Jarīr Al-Ṭabarī, Tārīkh al-umam wal-mulūk, ed. Abū Ṣuhayb
al-Karmī (Amman: Interntional Ideas Home, Undated), 200-201.
5 Al-Ṭabarī, Tārīkh al-umam wal-mulūk, 202.
6 ʿAbd al-Malik Ibn Hishām, Sīrat al-nabī, ed. Fatḥī al-Dābūllī (4 vols.; Tanta: Dār
al-Ṣaḥāba lil-Turāth, 1995), vol. 1, 489.
7 Walter D. Ward, The mirage of the saracen: Christians and nomads in the sinai peninsula
in late antiquity (California: University of California Press, 2015), 131.
8 Mark Swanson, “Folly to the Ḥunafāʾ: The crucifixion in early Christian-Muslim
controversy”, in ed. Emmanouela Grypeou, Mark Swanson, and David Thomas, The
Encounter of Eastern Christianity with Early Islam (Leiden: Brill, 2006), 239; Jos
van Lent, “The Apocalypse of Shenute”, in ed. David Thomas and Barbara Roggema,
Christian-Muslim relations: a bibliographical history Volume 1 (600-900) (Leiden:
Brill, 2008), 183.
9 John of Damascus, Fountain of knowledge. trans. Frederic H. Chase, The Fathers
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10 Swanson, “Folly to the Ḥunafāʾ”, 243.
11 Alphonse Mingana, The Apology of Timothy the Patriarch before the Caliph Mahdi
(New Jersey: Gorgias Press, 2009), 40-41.
12 Sandra Toenies Keating, “Defending the faith: Lines of apology”, in ed. Douglas Pratt
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and Charles Tieszen, Christian-Muslim relations: A bibliographical history, volume
15 Thematic Essays (600-1600) (Leiden: Brill, 2020), 260-261.
13 Najib George Awad, Orthodoxy in Arabic terms: A Study of theodore Abu Qurrah’s
theology in its Islamic context, (ed.) Patrice Brodeur et al., vol. 3, Judaism, Christianity,
and Islam – Tension, Transmission, Transformation, (Boston: Walter de Gruyter,
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14 Abū Ḥātim Al-Rāzī, Aʿlām al-Nubuwwa, ed. Salah Al-Sawy and Gholam-Reza
Aavani; Iran: Muʾassasat Bazuhshi, 2002), 69.
72 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ISL AM AND SOCIE T Y 40:1-2
15 Abū Ḥātim Al-Rāzī, Aʿlām al-Nubuwwa, 168-170.
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FATOOHI: THE NON-CRUCIFIXION VERSE 73
33 Todd Lawson, The crucifixion and the Qur’an: A study in the history of Muslim thought
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A bibliographical history, volume 15 Thematic Essays (600-1600) (Leiden: Brill, 2020),
60.
35 Lawson, The crucifixion and the Qur’an.
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74 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ISL AM AND SOCIE T Y 40:1-2
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FATOOHI: THE NON-CRUCIFIXION VERSE 75
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76 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ISL AM AND SOCIE T Y 40:1-2
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(Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008), 32.
90 For a detailed discussion of what the Qur’an says about Jesus after the crucifixion,
see Fatoohi, “The End of Jesus’ Life in the Qur’ān.”
91 Angelika Neuwirth, “Qur’an and history — a disputed relationship: Some reflections
on Qur’anic history and history in the Qur’an”, Journal of Qur’anic Studies 5 (2003),
no. 1: 4.
1 The text of 4:157 is identical in all fourteen canonical and non-canonical readings
(qirāʾās) of the Qur’an.
2 Louay Fatoohi, “The End of Jesus’ Life on Earth in the Qur’ān”, Australian Journal
of Islamic Studies 8 (2023), no. 1.
3 Muḥammad Ibn Jarīr Al-Ṭabarī, Jāmiʿ al-bayān ʿan taʾwīl ʾāy al-Qurʾān, ed. ʿAbd
Allāh al-Turkī (24 vols.; Al-Ihsa: Dār Hajr, 2001), vol. 5, 447-453.
4 Muḥammad Ibn Jarīr Al-Ṭabarī, Tārīkh al-umam wal-mulūk, ed. Abū Ṣuhayb
al-Karmī (Amman: Interntional Ideas Home, Undated), 200-201.
5 Al-Ṭabarī, Tārīkh al-umam wal-mulūk, 202.
6 ʿAbd al-Malik Ibn Hishām, Sīrat al-nabī, ed. Fatḥī al-Dābūllī (4 vols.; Tanta: Dār
al-Ṣaḥāba lil-Turāth, 1995), vol. 1, 489.
7 Walter D. Ward, The mirage of the saracen: Christians and nomads in the sinai peninsula
in late antiquity (California: University of California Press, 2015), 131.
8 Mark Swanson, “Folly to the Ḥunafāʾ: The crucifixion in early Christian-Muslim
controversy”, in ed. Emmanouela Grypeou, Mark Swanson, and David Thomas, The
Encounter of Eastern Christianity with Early Islam (Leiden: Brill, 2006), 239; Jos
van Lent, “The Apocalypse of Shenute”, in ed. David Thomas and Barbara Roggema,
Christian-Muslim relations: a bibliographical history Volume 1 (600-900) (Leiden:
Brill, 2008), 183.
9 John of Damascus, Fountain of knowledge. trans. Frederic H. Chase, The Fathers
of the Church: Saint John of Damascus Writings 37 (Washington: The Catholic
University of America Press, 1958), 154.
10 Swanson, “Folly to the Ḥunafāʾ”, 243.
11 Alphonse Mingana, The Apology of Timothy the Patriarch before the Caliph Mahdi
(New Jersey: Gorgias Press, 2009), 40-41.
12 Sandra Toenies Keating, “Defending the faith: Lines of apology”, in ed. Douglas Pratt
and Charles Tieszen, Christian-Muslim relations: A bibliographical history, volume
15 Thematic Essays (600-1600) (Leiden: Brill, 2020), 197-202; Gordon Nickel, “‘Our
Friendly Strife’: Eastern Christianity engaging the Qur’an”, in ed. Douglas Pratt
and Charles Tieszen, Christian-Muslim relations: A bibliographical history, volume
15 Thematic Essays (600-1600) (Leiden: Brill, 2020), 260-261.
13 Najib George Awad, Orthodoxy in Arabic terms: A Study of theodore Abu Qurrah’s
theology in its Islamic context, (ed.) Patrice Brodeur et al., vol. 3, Judaism, Christianity,
and Islam – Tension, Transmission, Transformation, (Boston: Walter de Gruyter,
2015), 268-269.
14 Abū Ḥātim Al-Rāzī, Aʿlām al-Nubuwwa, ed. Salah Al-Sawy and Gholam-Reza
Aavani; Iran: Muʾassasat Bazuhshi, 2002), 69.
72 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ISL AM AND SOCIE T Y 40:1-2
15 Abū Ḥātim Al-Rāzī, Aʿlām al-Nubuwwa, 168-170.
16 Abū Ḥātim Al-Rāzī, Kitāb al-Iṣlāḥ, ed. Ḥasan Mīnūchahar and Mahdī Muḥaqqaq;
Tehran: Muʾassasat Muṭālaʿāt, 2004), 243-246.
17 Abū Yaʿqūb Al-Sijistānī, Kitāb al-Yanābīʿ, ed. Muṣṭafā Ghālib; Beirut: Al-Maktab
al-Tijārī li al-Ṭibāʿa wa al-Nashr wa al-Tawzīʿ, 1965), 146-149.
18 Jaʿfar Ibn Mansūr al-Yaman, Asrār al-Nuṭaqāʾ, ed. Muṣṭāfā Ghālib; Beirut: Dār
al-Andalus, 1984), 223-225.
19 Ikhwān al-Ṣafāʾ, Rasāʾil Ikhwān al-Ṣafāʾ wa khillān al-wafāʾ, ed. Buṭrus Al-Bustānī,
vol. IV; Qom: Markaz Al-Nashr, 1985), 28-32.
20 Douglas Pratt, “Relational dynamics in the first millennium: A thematic analysis”, in
ed. Douglas Pratt and Charles Tieszen, Christian-Muslim relations: A bibliographical
history, volume 15 Thematic Essays (600-1600) (Leiden: Brill, 2020), 41.
21 J. M. S. Baljon, The reforms and religious ideas of Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan (Lahore:
Orientalia Publishers, 1958), 107-108.
22 Flavius Josephus, Life of Flavius Josephus. trans. William Whiston, The complete
works of Flavius Josephus (London: Ward, Lock & CO. Limited, n.d.), 25.
23 William D. Edwards, Wesley J. Gabel, and Floyd E. Hosmer, “On the physical death
of Jesus Christ”, The Journal of the American Medical Association 255 (1986), no. 11.
24 A. R. Dard, Life of Ahmad: Founder of the Ahmadiyya Movement (Surrey: Islam
International Publications, 2008), 50.
25 Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, Jesus in India: Jesus’ Deliverance From the Cross & Journey
to India (Surrey: Islam International Publications, 2003), 57-58.
26 Muḥammad Rashīd Riḍā, Tafsīr al-manār, 12 vols. (Cairo: Dār al-Manār, 1947), vol.
3, 316.
27 Aḥmad Muṣṭafā Al-Marāghī, Tafsīr al-Marāghī (Cairo: Muṣṭafā al-Bābī, 1946), vol.
6, 14-15.
28 Maḥmūd Shaltūt, Al-Fatāwā: Dirāsa li mushkilāt al-Muslim al-muʿāṣir fī ḥayātihi
al-yawmiyya al-ʿāmma (Cairo: Dār al-Shurūq, 2004), 54-55.
29 Muḥammad Ibn ʿĀshūr, Al-Taḥrīr wal-tanwīr (Tunisia: Al-Dār al-Tūnisiyya Lil-
Nashr, 1984), vol. 3, 257-259.
30 Muḥammad Al-Ghazālī, Naḥwa tafsīrin Muwḍūʿī li-suwar al-Qur’an al-karīm (Cairo:
Dār al-Shurūq, 2000), 36-37.
31 Aḥmad Shalabī, Al-Masīḥīyyah (Cairo: Maktabat al-Nahḍah al-Miṣriyyah, 1988),
64-67.
32 Suleiman A. Mourad, “The death of Jesus in Islam: Reality, assumptions, and implications”,
in ed. Oliver Larry Yarbrough, Engaging the passion: perspectives on the
death of Jesus (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2015), 380.
FATOOHI: THE NON-CRUCIFIXION VERSE 73
33 Todd Lawson, The crucifixion and the Qur’an: A study in the history of Muslim thought
(Oxford: Oneworld, 2009).
34 Pratt, “Relational dynamics”, 40; David Bertaina, “Encounter and inquiry: Trajectories
of interaction”, in ed. Douglas Pratt and Charles Tieszen, Christian-Muslim relations:
A bibliographical history, volume 15 Thematic Essays (600-1600) (Leiden: Brill, 2020),
60.
35 Lawson, The crucifixion and the Qur’an.
36 Lawson, The crucifixion and the Qur’an, 94-95.
37 Oddbjørn Leirvik, “Jesus in modern Muslim thought: From anti-colonial polemics
to post-colonial dialogue?”, in ed. Halvor Moxnes, Ward Blanton, and James G.
Crossley, Jesus beyond nationalism: constructing the historical Jesus in a period of
cultural complexity (New York: Routledge, 2014), 141; Ian Mevorach, “Qur’an, crucifixion,
and Talmud: A new reading of Q 4:157-58”, Journal of Religion & Society 19
(2017): 12; G. Parrinder, Jesus in the Qur’an (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 1995),
119; Suleiman A. Mourad, “Does the Qur’an deny or assert Jesus’s crucifixion and
death?”, in ed. Gabriel Said Reynolds, New perspectives on the Qur’an: The Qur’an
in its historical context 2 (Oxon: Routledge, 2011), 356; Peter Laffoon, “Polyphony
and Symphony: A Rereading of Q 4.157”, Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations 32
(2021), no. 2: 177.
38 John Kaltner and Younus Mirza, The Bible and the Qur’an: Biblical figures in the
Islamic tradition (London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2018), 80; Gabriel Said Reynolds,
The Qurʾān and the Bible: Text and commentary (New Haven: Yale University Press,
2018), 181.
39 Mevorach, “Qur’an, crucifixion, and Talmud”, 2.
40 J. Scott Bridger, Christian exegesis of the Qur’ān (Cambridge: James Clarke & Co,
2016), 98.
41 Mevorach, “Qur’an, crucifixion, and Talmud”, 14.
42 All Biblical translations are from the New Revised Standard Version Bible.
43 Neal Robinson, Christ in Islam and Christianity (New York: State University of New
York Press, 1991), 115.
44 Mahmoud Ayoub, A Muslim view of Christianity: Essays on dialogue by Mahmoud
Ayoub, ed. Irfan A. Omar (New York: Orbis Books, 2007), 156.
45 Ayoub, A Muslim view of Christianity, 176.
46 Bart D. Ehrman, Did Jesus exist? The historical argument for Jesus of Nazareth (New York:
HarperOne, 2012), 165-167; Emil Schürer, The history of the Jewish people in the age of
Jesus Christ (175 B.C.-A.D. 135), vol. II, ed. Géza Vermes, Fergus Millar, and Matthew
Black (London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2014), 547-549; James D. G. Dunn, Jesus remembered
(Cambridge: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2003), 811; Géza Vermes, Jesus the
Jew: A historian’s reading of the Gospels (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1981), 38.
74 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ISL AM AND SOCIE T Y 40:1-2
47 Juan Cole, “‘It was made to appear to them so’: The crucifixion, Jews and Sasanian
war propaganda in the Qur’ān”, Religion 51 (2021), no. 3.
48 Harry Freedman, The Talmud: A Biography (London: Keren Publications, 2019), 54, 59.
49 William Tisdall, The Original Sources of the Quran (London: Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge, 1911), 61.
50 Tisdall, The Original Sources of the Quran; Charles Torrey, The Jewish Foundation
of Islam (New York: Jewish Institute of Religion Press, 1933).
51 Tisdall, The Original Sources of the Quran, 182.
52 Mevorach, “Qur’an, crucifixion, and Talmud”.
53 Laffoon, “Polyphony and Symphony”, 169, 177.
54 Cole, “‘It was made to appear to them so’”, 12.
55 Leirvik, “Jesus in modern Muslim thought”, 141; Oddbjørn Leirvik, Images of Jesus
Christ in Islam (London: Continuum, 2010), 36.
56 I. Epstein, Hebrew-English Edition of the Babylonian Talmud. trans. J. Shachter and
H. Freedman (London: The Soncino Press, 1969).
57 Mevorach, “Qur’an, crucifixion, and Talmud”, 12.
58 Dan Jaffé, “The virgin birth of Jesus in the Talmudic context: A philological and
historical analysis”, Laval théologique et philosophique 68 (2012,), no. 3: 590.
59 Tertullian, De Spectaculis. trans. Gerald H. Rendall, The Loeb Classical Library
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977), 30.
60 David Instone-Brewer, “Jesus of Nazareth’s Trial in the Uncensored Talmud”,
Tyndale Bulletin 62 (2011), no. 2: 272.
61 Travers Herford, Christianity in Talmud and Midras (New York: Ktav Publishing
House, 1975), 79.
62 Gustaf Dalman, Jesus Christ in the Talmud, Midrash, Zohar, and the liturgy of the synagogue,
trans. A. W. Streane (London: Deighton, Bell, and Co., 1893), 8-10; Herford,
Christianity in Talmud and Midras, 35-39; Bernhard Pick, “The personality of Jesus
in the Talmud”, The Monist 20 (1910), no. 1: 11; Peter Schäfer, Jesus in the Talmud
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007), 7-8; Mirosław Wróbel, “The rabbinic
anti-Gospel in the context of the polemic between the synagogue and the church”,
The Person and the Challenges 4 (2014), no. 2: 55.
63 Joseph Klausner, Jesus of Nazareth: his life, times, and teaching, trans. Herbert Danby
(New York: The Macmillan Company, 1926), 20-22; Robert E. Van Voorst, Jesus
outside the New Testament: an introduction to the ancient evidence (Grand Rapids:
W.B. Eerdmans, 2000), 114.
64 Jaffé, “The virgin birth of Jesus in the Talmudic context”, 579.
65 Van Voorst, Jesus outside the New Testament, 117.
FATOOHI: THE NON-CRUCIFIXION VERSE 75
66 Origen, Against Celsus. trans. Frederick Crombie, The Ante-Nicene Fathers IV (New
York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1926), 32.
67 Jaffé, “The virgin birth of Jesus in the Talmudic context”, 590.
68 Schäfer, Jesus in the Talmud, 8.
69 D. Shepardson, “The Biblical Element in the Quran”, The Old and New Testament
Student 10 (1890), no. 4: 212.
70 Aaron W. Hughes, “Arabian Judaism at the advent of Islam: A forgotten chapter in
the history of Judaism”, in ed. Naomi Koltun‐Fromm and Gwynn Kessler, A companion
to late ancient Jews and Judaism : third century BCE to seventh century CE
(New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2020), 291; Aaron W. Hughes, “South Arabian
‘Judaism’, Ḥimyarite Raḥmanism, and the origins of Islam”, in ed. Carlos A. Segovia,
Remapping Emergent Islam: Texts, Social Settings, and Ideological Trajectories (Leiden:
Amsterdam University Press, 2020).
71 For an excellent critique of the popular tendency to uncritically trace Qur’anic texts
to Biblical tradition, see Michael E Pregill, “The Hebrew Bible and the Quran: the
problem of the Jewish ‘influence’ on Islam”, Religion Compass 1 (2007), no. 6.
72 Parrinder, Jesus in the Qur’an, 120; Michael G. Fonner, “Jesus’ death by crucifixion
in the Qur’an: an issue for interpretation and Muslim-Christian relations”, Journal
of Ecumenical Studies 29 (1992), no. 3-4: 445; Mark Robert Anderson, The Qur’an in
context: a Christian exploration (Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 2016), 245.
73 Parrinder, Jesus in the Qur’an, 113; Mourad, “The death of Jesus in Islam”, 371.
74 Robinson, Christ in Islam and Christianity, 109.
75 Parrinder, Jesus in the Qur’an, 106; Mourad, “The death of Jesus in Islam”, 372-373.
76 Al-Ṭabarī (Jāmiʿ al-bayān, 135.) agrees with al-Suddī that the dialogue in 5:116, in
which God quizzes Jesus about whether he asked people to take him and his mother as
two deities, happened after God raised him to heaven, not on the Day of Resurrection.
This suggests that the dialogue of 5:110 also happened after Jesus was raised to heaven.
77 Isaac Kalimi, “The story about the murder of the prophet Zechariah in the Gospels
and its relation to Chronicles”, Revue Biblique 116 (2009), no. 2.
78 Gabriel Said Reynolds, “On the Qur’ān and the theme of the Jews as ‘killers of the
Prophets’”, Al-Bayan 10 (2012), no. 2.
79 Al-Ṭabarī, Jāmiʿ al-bayān, vol. 7, 650-660.
80 Muḥammad Tawfīq Ṣidqī, Naẓariyyatī fī qiṣṣat ṣalb al-masīḥ wa-qiyāmatihi min
al-amwāt, ed. Khālid Muḥammad ʿAbdu (Al-Jīza: Matkabat al-Nāfithah, 2006), 36-42;
ʿAbd al-Karīm Al-Khaṭīb, Al-Masīḥ fī’l-Qurʾān wa’l-Tawrāt wa’l-Injīl (Cairo: Dār
al-Kutub al-Ḥadīthah, 1965), 486-488.
81 E. M. Yamauchi, “The crucifixion and Docetic Christology”, Concordia Theological
Quarterly 46 (1982), no. 1: 14; C. George Fry, “The Quranic Christ”, Concordia
76 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ISL AM AND SOCIE T Y 40:1-2
Theological Quarterly 43 (1979), no. 3: 219-220; Przemysław Turek, “Crucifixion
of Jesus – historical fact, Christian faith and Islamic denial”, Orientalia Christiana
Cracoviensia 3 (2011): 153-156; Samir Khalil Samir, “The theological Christian influence
on the Qur’an: a reflection”, in ed. Gabriel Said Reynolds, The Qur’an in its
historical context (Oxon: Routledge, 2008), 153; Gabriel Said Reynolds, “The Muslim
Jesus: dead or alive?”, Bulletin of SOAS 72 (2009), no. 2: 238.
82 Ignatius, Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans. trans. Kirsopp Lake, The Apostolic Fathers
(New York: William Heinmann, 1919), 2.
83 For other quotes from Ignatius, see Michael Goulder, “Ignatius’ “Docetists””, Vigiliae
Christianae 53 (1999), no. 1.
84 Irenaeus, Against Heresies, ed. A. Cleveland Coxe, The Apostolic Fathers with Justin
Martyr and Irenaeus (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1885), 1.24.4.
85 Roger A. Bullard and Joseph A. Gibbons, “The Second Treatise of the Great
Seth”, in ed. James Robinson, The Nag Hammadi Library in English (New York:
HarperSanFrancisco, 1990), 365-366; James Brashler and Roger A. Bullard, “The
Apocalypse of Peter”, in ed. James Robinson, The Nag Hammadi Library in English
(New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1990), 377; William R. Schoedel, “The First
Apocalypse of James”, in ed. James Robinson, The Nag Hammadi Library in English
(New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1990), 264-265.
86 Parrinder, Jesus in the Qur’an, 119; Ayoub, A Muslim view of Christianity, 160;
Fonner, “Jesus’ death”, 444.
87 Gunnar Samuelsson, Crucifixion in antiquity: an inquiry into the background and significance
of the New Testament terminology of crucifixion (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck,
2011).
88 John Granger Cook, Crucifixion in the Mediterranean world (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck,
2019), 452. See also Craig Evans, “Hanging and crucifixion in second temple Israel”,
in ed. Jörg Frey, Carsten Claussen, and Nadine Kessler, Qumran und die Archäologie:
Texte und Kontexte (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2011).
89 David W. Chapman, Ancient Jewish and Christian Perceptions of Crucifixion
(Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008), 32.
90 For a detailed discussion of what the Qur’an says about Jesus after the crucifixion,
see Fatoohi, “The End of Jesus’ Life in the Qur’ān.”
91 Angelika Neuwirth, “Qur’an and history — a disputed relationship: Some reflections
on Qur’anic history and history in the Qur’an”, Journal of Qur’anic Studies 5 (2003),
no. 1: 4.
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Jul 3, 2023
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Fatoohi, L. (2023). The Non-Crucifixion Verse: A Historical, Contextual, and Linguistic Analysis. American Journal of Islam and Society, 40(1-2), 39–76. https://doi.org/10.35632/ajis.v40i1-2.3143
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