Мак̣ас̣идӣ модели для «исламской» медицинской этики решение проблем или замешательство у постели больного?
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Keywords
Abstract
Мак̣а̄с̣ид аш-шарӣ‘а пропагандируются как инстру-
мент для решения современных социальных про-
блем. Действительно, утверждается, что основанные
на мак̣а̄с̣ид решения сегодняшних экономических,
политических и культурных задач соединяют нрав-
ственное видение ислама с современностью. Их сто-
ронники также подчеркивают, что мак̣а̄с̣идӣ модели
лишены недостатков основанных на фик̣хе страте-
гий: их чрезмерной зависимости от скриптуральной
и правовой герменевтики, устаревших взглядов на
социальную жизнь и аналитической сфокусирован-
ности на индивидуальном действии. В этой работе я
критически анализирую попытки внедрить мак̣ас̣идӣ
мышление в клиническую практику. В частности, я
описываю, как ведущие мыслители, такие как про-
фессора Гамал Элдин Аттиа, Тарик Рамадан, Омар
Хасан Касуле и другие, создают систему мак̣а̄с̣ид для
медицинской этики, развивая теорию мак̣а̄с̣ид аш-
шарӣ‘а имама Абӯ Исх̣а̄к̣а аш-Ша̄т̣ибӣ. Я разделяю
эти разнообразные модели на три типа (отраслевое
переопределение, концептуальное расширение и по-
стулирование на основе текста) и подробно описы-
ваю, как каждый из них устанавливает конкретный
метод обсуждения вопросов медицинской этики.
Переходя от теории к практике, я использую в каче-
стве прецедента женщину-мусульманку с «мертвым
мозгом» на 19-й неделе беременности, чтобы опре-
делить на основании этих трех типов моделей цели
ухода и соответствующие моральные обязанности ее
мужа и лечащего врача-мусульманина. Далее я об-
суждаю достоинства и недостатки каждого предло-
женного решения и комментирую, как они соотно-
сятся с существующим фик̣хом. В завершение статьи я
прокомментирую место мак̣а̄с̣идӣ мышления во
взаимодействии мусульман с современной биомеди-
циной, утверждая, что подобная система в настоящее
время недостаточно развита для обсуждения вопросов
медицинской этики у постели больного. Действи-
тельно, без дальнейшей разработки теоретиками
обращение к мак̣а̄с̣ид при обсуждении вопросов
медицинской этики может дать врачам, пациентам и
другим заинтересованным сторонам двусмысленные,
неполные, непрактичные, и в целом проблематичные
ответы.
References
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2 Термин «биоэтика» имеет множество различных определений, однако это
широкая область исследований, охватывающая этические, социальные и
правовые вопросы, возникающие в сфере наук о жизни и биомедицине.
Дискурсы биоэтики, таким образом, возникают в самых разных условиях:
в больнице, дома, в средствах массовой информации и в законодательных
органах. Биоэтика как область знаний обширна и может рассматриваться
как состоящая из нескольких подобластей, включая клиническую меди-
цинскую этику (или медицинскую этику для краткости), которая фокуси-
руется на проблемах, возникающих на уровне пациента, семьи и врача в
процессе принятия решений о медицинском обслуживании. В данной
статье основное внимание будет уделено медицинской этике как сфере
применения моделей, основанных на высших целях исламского права.
См. также: Yacoub Ahmed, Abdassamad Clarke, and Abdel Aziz, The Fiqh of
Medicine: Responses in Islamic Jurisprudence to Development in Medical Science
(London: Ta-Ha, 2001); Abdulaziz Abdulhussein Sachedina, Islamic Biomedical
Ethics: Principles and Application (New-York: Oxford University Press, 2009);
Mohammed Ali Al-Bar and Hassan Chamsi-Pasha, Contemporary Bioethics
(Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2015); Alireza Bagheri and Khalid
Abdulla Al-Ali, Islamic Bioethics: Current Issues and Challenges (London: World
Scientific Publishing Europe Ltd., 2018); Aasim I. Padela, and Ebrahim Moosa,
Medicine and Shariah: A Dialogue in Islamic Bioethics (Notre Dame: University of
Notre Dame Press, 2020).
3 Morgan Clarke, Thomas Eich, and Jenny Schreiber, “The Social Politics of
Islamic Bioethics,” Die Welt Des Islams 55, no. 3–4 (November 2015): 265–77;
Aasim I. Padela, “Islamic Bioethics: Between Sacred Law, Lived Experiences, and
State Authority,” Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 34, no. 2 (April 2013): 65–80;
Mohammed Ghaly, “Islamic Bioethics: The Inevitable Interplay of ‘Texts’ and
‘Contexts’: Editorial,” Bioethics 28, no. 2 (February 2014): ii–v; Alireza Bagheri,
“Islamic Bioethics,” Asian Bioethics Review 3, no. 4 (2011): 313–15.
4 Aasim I. Padela, Hasan Shanawani, and Ahsan Arozullah, “Medical Experts &
Islamic Scholars Deliberating over Brain Death: Gaps in the Applied Islamic
Bioethics Discourse,” The Muslim World 101, no. 1 (2011): 53–72; Aasim I. Padela,
Ahsan Arozullah, and Ebrahim Moosa, “Brain Death in Islamic Ethico-Legal
Deliberation: Challenges for Applied Islamic Bioethics,” Bioethics 27, no. 3
(March 2013): 132–39; Aasim I. Padela, “Public Health Measures & Individualized
Decision-Making: The Confluence of the H1N1 Vaccine and Islamic Bioethics,”
Human Vaccines 6, no. 9 (September 2010): 12015.
5 Omar Hasan Kasule, “Biomedical Ethics: An Islamic Formulation,” Journal of the
Islamic Medical Association of North America 42, no. 1 (April 2010).
6 Gamal Eldin Attia, Towards Realization of the Higher Intents of Islamic Law:
Maqasid al-Shari`ah: A Functional Approach (Herndon, VA: International
Institute of Islamic Thought, 2007); Jasser Auda, Maqasid al-Shari`ah:
A Beginner’s Guide (London: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 2008).
7 Mohammad Hashim Kamali, Maqasid al-Shariah, Ijtihad and Civilisational
Renewal, Occasional Papers 20 (London: International Institute of Islamic
Thought, 2012); Jasser Auda, Maqasid al-Shariah as Philosophy of Islamic Law:
A Systems Approach (Washington D.C.: International Institute of Islamic
Thought, 2008).
8 Данная статья посвящена пересечению мак̣а̄с̣ид с решениями в области
медицинской или клинической этики, а не с более широкой областью
биоэтики.
9 Смерть мозга – это неверный термин и очень спорное понятие. Это не
полный отказ мозга с физиологической точки зрения, и критерии оценки
смерти мозга не требуют проверки всех его частей. Ее правильнее считать
прогностическим, а не диагностическим состоянием. В рамках данной
статьи я использую этот термин для обозначения клинического состояния
человека, соответствующего неврологическим критериям смерти в
определенной правовой юрисдикции. Важно понимать, что эти критерии
могут различаться в разных странах.
10 Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee, Theories of Islamic Law (Islamabad: Islamic Research
Institute, 2005); Ibrahim ibn Musa al-Shatibi, The Reconciliation of the
Fundamentals of Islamic Law, translated by Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee (Reading,
UK: Garnet Publications, 2011).
11 Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee, Islamic Jurisprudence: Usul al-Fiqh (Islamabad:
Islamic Research Institute, 2000); Subhi Ragab al-Mahmasani, Falsafat Al-Tashri
Fi Al-Islam = the Philosophy of Jurisprudence in Islam, transl. Farhat Jacob Ziadeh
(Leiden: Brill, 1961); Kamali, Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence.
12 Ahmad al-Raysuni, Imam Al-Shatibi’s Theory of the Higher Objectives and Intents
of Islamic Law, translated by Nancy N. Roberts, abridged by Alison Lake
(Herndon, VA: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 2013).
13 Tariq Ramadan, Radical Reform: Islamic Ethics and Liberation (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2009); Auda, Maqasid al-shari`ah; al-Raysuni, Imam Al-
Shatibi’s Theory of the Higher Objectives and Intents of Islamic Law.
14 Al-Raysuni, Imam Al-Shatibi’s Theory of the Higher Objectives and Intents of
Islamic Law, 284.
15 Shatibi, The Reconciliation of the Fundamentals of Islamic Law, 9.
16 Там же. С. 10.
17 Al-Raysuni, Imam Al-Shatibi’s Theory of the Higher Objectives and Intents of
Islamic Law.
18 Shatibi, The Reconciliation of the Fundamentals of Islamic Law, 319.
19 Там же. С. 14.
20 Там же.
21 Attia, Towards Realization of the Higher Intents of Islamic Law.
22 Ibid.; al-Raysuni, Imam Al-Shatibi’s Theory of the Higher Objectives and Intents of
Islamic Law.
23 Abul Fadl Mohsin Ebrahim, “Vaccination in the Context of Al-Maqasid al-
Shari`ah : Objectives of Divine Law and Islamic Medical Jurisprudence,” Arabian
Journal of Business and Management Review (Oman Chapter) 3, no. 9 (May 2014):
44–52; Shaikh Mohd Saifuddeen et al., “Maqasid al-shariah as a Complementary
Framework to Conventional Bioethics,” Science and Engineering Ethics 20, no. 2
(June 2014): 317–27; Omar Hasan Kasule, “Analysis of the Medical Decisions of the
International Fiqh Academy from the Perspectives of the Maqasid Al Shari’at and
Qawa’id Al Fiqh,” Integrated Medical Education Resources (blog), 2015,
https://omarkasule-tib.blogspot.com/2015/06/150309p-analysis-of-medicaldecisions.
html; Omar Hasan Kasule, “Understanding Basic Principles of Maqasid
Al Shari’at for Healthcare Workers,” Integrated Medical Education Resources (блог),
2009, https://omarkasule-tib.blogspot.com/2011/07/091018p-understanding- basic
principles.html; Omar Hasan Kasule, “Islamic Medical Ethics with Special
Reference to Maqasid al Shari’at,” 2007, http://ihcmalaysia.my/index.php/list-ofpublications/
38-maqasid-syariah; Omar Hasan Kasule, “The Application of
Maqasid Al Shari’at in Medical Practice,” Integrated Medical Education Resources
(blog), 2006, https://omarkasule-tib.blogspot. com/2011/05/0609p-application-ofmaqasid-
al-shariat.html; Bouhedda Ghalia et al., “Medical Ethics in the Light of
Maqāṣid al-sharīʿah: A Case Study of Medical Confidentiality,” Intellectual
Discourse 26, no. 1 (June 12, 2018): 133–60; Abdul Halim Ibrahim et al., “Tri-Parent
Baby Technology and Preservation of Lineage: An Analysis from the Perspective
of Maqasid al-shari’ah Based Islamic Bioethics,” Science and Engineering Ethics 25,
no. 1 (February 2019): 129–42; Abdul Halim Ibrahim, Noor Naemah Abdul
Rahman, and Shaikh Mohd Saifuddeen, “Maqasid al-shariah as a Complementary
Framework for Conventional Bioethics: Application in Malaysian Assisted
Reproductive Technology (ART) Fatwa,” Science and Engineering Ethics 24, no. 5
(October 2018): 1493–1502.
24 Я знаю, что такое преподавание ведется в медицинских образовательных
учреждениях Малайзии, а в последнее время и в Саудовской Аравии.
25 Хотя во многих фата̄ва̄, ориентированных на медицину, есть ссылки на
мак̣а̄с̣ид, чаще всего они приводятся для того, чтобы подкрепить этичес-
кие заключения, основанные на фик̣хе. Кроме того, с учетом жанра, такие
тексты коротки и не содержат подробностей о дискуссионных моделях,
использующих мак̣а̄с̣ид. Поэтому я ограничил свои источники исследова-
ния существующей литературой по исламской биоэтике на английском
языке, которая дает возможность более глубокого анализа и представляет
собой попытку мусульманских ученых привлечь к сотрудничеству
современные заинтересованные стороны медицинской этики.
26 В то же время, поскольку в фокусе моего исследования были научные
труды, рассматривающие медицинскую этику с перспективы мак̣а̄с̣идӣ,
источники, которые я использовал, могут не полностью представлять
каждую теоретическую модель. Необходимо более полное исследование,
чтобы всесторонне рассмотреть, как ученые, опираясь на труды аш-
Шаqт̣ибӣ, работали над созданием более новых моделей мак̣а̄с̣ид аш-
шарӣ‘а.
27 Kasule, “Biomedical Ethics,” 39.
28 Там же.
29 Siti Hafsyah Idris, Abu Bakar Abdul Majeed, and Lee Wei Chang, “Beyond Halal:
Maqasid al-Shari’ah to Assess Bioethical Issues Arising from Genetically
Modified Crops,” Science and Engineering Ethics 26, no. 3 (June 2020): 1463–76.
30 Kasule, “Integrated Medical Education Resources.”
31 Там же.
32 Там же.
33 Там же.
34 Там же.
35 Там же.; Kasule, “Biomedical Ethics”; Saifuddeen и др., “Maqasid al-Shariah as a
Complementary Framework to Conventional Bioethics”; Kasule, “Integrated
Medical Education Resources.”
36 Saifuddeen et al., “Maqasid al-Shariah as a Complementary Framework to
Conventional Bioethics,” 324.
37 Kasule, “Biomedical Ethics.”
38 Abdul Halim Ibrahim et al., “Maqasid al-Shariah Based Islamic Bioethics:
A Comprehensive Approach,” Journal of Bioethical Inquiry 16, no. 3 (September
2019): 333–45.
39 Saifuddeen et al., “Maqasid al-shariah as a Complementary Framework to
Conventional Bioethics.”
40 Ibrahim et al., “Maqasid al-Shariah Based Islamic Bioethics.”
41 Saifuddeen et al., “Maqasid al-Shariah as a Complementary Framework to
Conventional Bioethics”; Ibrahim, Rahman, and Saifuddeen, “Maqasid al-Shariah
as a Complementary Framework for Conventional Bioethics.”
42 Ebrahim, “Vaccination in the Context of Al-Maqasid al-Shari`ah.”
43 Ghalia et al., “Medical Ethics in the Light of Maqāṣid al-Sharīʿah.”
44 M.M. Nordin, “Immunisation from the Perspective of Maqasid Shariah,”
Bangladesh Journal of Medical Science 15, no. 2 (n.d.): 151–53.
45 Kasule, “Integrated Medical Education Resources,” 3.
46 Saifuddeen et al., “Maqasid al-Shariah as a Complementary Framework to
Conventional Bioethics”; Kasule, “Integrated Medical Education Resources.”
47 Omar Hasan Kasule, “Islamic Medical Ethics with Special Reference to Maqasid
al Shari’at,” 2007, http://ihcmalaysia.my/index.php/list-of-publications/38-
maqasid-syariah.
48 Saifuddeen et al., “Maqasid al-Shariah as a Complementary Framework to
Conventional Bioethics.”
49 Ebrahim, “Vaccination in the Context of Al-Maqasid al-Shari`ah.”
50 Ibrahim, Rahman, and Saifuddeen, “Maqasid al-shariah as a Complementary
Framework for Conventional Bioethics,” 1496.
51 Ibid.; Ibrahim et al., “Maqasid al-shariah Based Islamic Bioethics”; Ibrahim et al.,
“Tri-Parent Baby Technology and Preservation of Lineage.”
52 Ghaiath Hussein, “What Can Ethics Learn from Islamic Legislation? An Islamic
Approach to Moral Analysis Based on the Purposes of Islamic Legislation
(Maqsid al-Shariya’a).”
53 Attia, Towards Realization of the Higher Intents of Islamic Law.
54 Auda, Maqasid al-shariah as Philosophy of Islamic Law; Ramadan, Radical
Reform; Attia, Towards Realization of the Higher Intents of Islamic Law; Y. al-
Qaradawi, “Medicine Containing Alcohol for Preservation Purposes.,” Halal
Industry Development Corporation, accessed 2020, http://www.hdcglobal.com/
publisher/pid/219ab653-c702-49b4-8598-ebb11c060596/container//contentId/
f7f596a7-b417-4e7d-bdb2-06df1441629e; Yusuf Al-Qaradawi, The Lawful and the
Prohibited in Islam (Kuala Lumpur: Islamic Book Trust, 2013).
55 Attia, Towards Realization of the Higher Intents of Islamic Law, 2007.
56 Там же.
57 Там же. С. 11.
58 Там же. С. 195.
59 Там же. С. 119.
60 Там же.
61 Там же. С. 122.
62 Там же. С. 32.
63 Там же.
64 Ramadan, Radical Reform, 142.
65 Там же. С. 136.
66 Там же. С. 136.
67 Там же. С. 138.
68 Там же. С. 136.
69 Там же. С. 139.
70 Tariq Ramadan, “The Challenges and Future of Applied Islamic Ethics Discourse:
A Radical Reform?,” Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 34, no. 2 (April 2013):
105–15.
71 Ramadan, Radical Reform, 159.
72 Там же. С. 176.
73 Очень важно признать, что теория аш-Шаqт̣ибӣ связана с Писанием. Он
использует индукцию, чтобы вывести главные человеческие интересы;
таким образом, его теория основана на текстах Писания. Однако эта
модель не обращается непосредственно к этим священным текстам.
74 Ebrahim, “Vaccination in the Context of Al-Maqasid al-Shari`ah”; Kamali,
Maqasid al-Shariah, Ijtihad and Civilisational Renewal; Aasim I. Padela, “The
Essential Dimensions of Health According to the Maqasid al-shariʿah
Frameworks of Abu Ishaq al-Shatibi and Jamal-al-Din-ʿAtiyah,” IIUM Medical
Journal Malaysia 17, no. 1 (July 2018).
75 Al-Raysuni, Imam Al-Shatibi’s Theory of the Higher Objectives and Intents of
Islamic Law.
76 Nyazee, Theories of Islamic Law.
77 Padela, “The Essential Dimensions of Health According to the Maqasid al-
Shariʿah Frameworks of Abu Ishaq al-Shatibi and Jamal-al-Din-ʿAtiyah.”
78 Aasim I. Padela, “The Perspectives of Islamic Jurists on the Brain Death as Legal
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79 Majid Esmaeilzadeh et al., “One Life Ends, Another Begins: Management of a
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81 Farhat Moazam, “Islamic Perspectives on Abortion,” Bioethics Links 1, no. 2
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82 С другой стороны, если бы это считалось состоянием смерти, то принцип
сохранения жизни не касался бы матери. Тогда следовало бы обратиться к
принципам более низкого порядка. Однако поддержание жизни матери
благоприятствует сохранению жизни плода, следовательно, можно
утверждать, что принцип сохранения жизни остается применимым, даже
если мать считается мертвой.
83 Предыдущее примечание применимо и здесь.
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85 Ayman Shihadeh, “Introduction: The Ontology of the Soul in Medieval Arabic
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History 104 (Leiden: Brill, 2001); Omar Sultan Haque, “Brain Death and Its
Entanglements: A Redefinition of Personhood for Islamic Ethics,” Journal of
Religious Ethics 36, no. 1 (March 2008): 13–36; Ebrahim Moosa, “Languages of
Change in Islamic Law: Redefining Death in Modernity,” Islamic Studies 38, no. 3
(1999): 305–42; Ahmet Bedir and Sahin Aksoy, “Brain Death Revisited: It Is Not
‘Complete Death’ According to Islamic Sources,” Journal of Medical Ethics 37, no.
5 (May 2011): 290–94.
86 Al-Kawthari, Birth Control & Abortion in Islam; Moazam, “Islamic Perspectives
on Abortion”; Marion Katz, “The Problem of Abortion in Classical Sunni Fiqh,” в
Islamic Ethics of Life: Abortion, War, and Euthanasia, ред. John Brockopp
(Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 2003), 25–50; Thomas Eich,
“Induced Miscarriage in Early Mālikī and Hanafī Fiqh,” Islamic Law and Society
16, no. 3–4 (2009): 302–36; Muhammed V. Stodolsky and Aasim I. Padela,
“Abortion in Hanafi Law,” in Abortion: Global Positions and Practices, Religious
and Legal Perspectives, ed. Alireza Bagheri (Cham: Springer, 2021), 127–36;
Mohammed Ghaly, “The Beginning of Human Life: Islamic Bioethical
Perspectives,” Zygon® 47, no. 1 (March 2012): 175–213.
87 Moosa, “Languages of Change in Islamic Law”; Padela, Arozullah, and Moosa,
“Brain Death in Islamic Ethico-Legal Deliberation.”
88 Margaret Lock, “On Dying Twice: Culture, Technology and the Determination of
Death,” in Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of
Inquiry, ed. Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (Cambridge
University Press, 2000), 233.
89 Aasim I. Padela, “Social Responsibility and the State’s Duty to Provide
Healthcare: An Islamic Ethico-Legal Perspective,” Developing World Bioethics 17,
no. 3 (December 2017): 205–14; Padela, “The Essential Dimensions of Health
According to the Maqasid al-Shariʿah Frameworks of Abu Ishaq al-Shatibi and
Jamal-al-Din-ʿAtiyah.”
90 Abrar Khan, “Brain Death Legislation and Organ Transplantation in the Islamic
World,” Middle East Health Magazine, September 2009,
http://www.middleeasthealthmag.com/; Miller, Ziad-Miller, and Elamin, “Brain
Death and Islam.”
91 Blair Wendlandt et al., “Modifiable Elements of ICU Supportive Care and
Communication Are Associated with Surrogates’ PTSD Symptoms,” Intensive
Care Medicine 45, no. 5 (May 2019): 619–26; Jesse J. Miller et al., “Decision
Conflict and Regret among Surrogate Decision Makers in the Medical Intensive
Care Unit,” Journal of Critical Care 32 (April 2016): 79–84; Cynthia J. Gries et al.,
“Family Member Satisfaction With End-of-Life Decision Making in the ICU,”
Chest 133, no. 3 (March 2008): 704–12; Blair Wendlandt et al., “Risk Factors for
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms in Surrogate Decision-Makers of
Patients with Chronic Critical Illness,” Annals of the American Thoracic Society
15, no. 12 (December 2018): 1451–58.
92 Grundmann, “Shari`ah, Brain Death, and Organ Transplantation”; Padela, “The
Perspectives of Islamic Jurists on the Brain Death as Legal Death in Islam”; A.
Sachedina, “Brain Death in Islamic Jurisprudence”, 2009,
http://people.virginia.edu/~aas/article/article6.htm; Krawietz, “Brain Death and
Islamic Traditions.”
93 Padela, “The Perspectives of Islamic Jurists on the Brain Death as Legal Death in
Islam”; Al-Bar and Chamsi-Pasha, Contemporary Bioethics; Dariusch Atighetchi,
Islamic Bioethics: Problems and Perspectives, International Library of Ethics, Law,
and the New Medicine 31 (New York: Springer, 2009).
94 Padela, Arozullah, and Moosa, “Brain Death in Islamic Ethico-Legal Deliberation.”
95 На это можно возразить, что поскольку цитируемые мною правила ка-
саются небеременных пациенток, достигших состояния физиологической
смерти мозга, в данном случае они не применимы. Таким образом, для
этого сценария нужны новые правила. Хотя это может быть и так, суть в
том, чтобы показать некоторый потенциальный диссонанс между
устоявшимся фик̣хом и представленными методами медицинской этики,
основанными на мак̣а̄с̣ид. Сторонники основанного на мак̣а̄с̣ид анализа
могут утверждать, что его роль заключается в мотивировании новых
правил, и что диссонанс является положительной чертой этих моделей
медицинской этики. В этом рассуждении есть определенный смысл.
96 Omar Qureshi and Aasim I. Padela, “When Must a Patient Seek Healthcare?
Bringing the Perspectives of Islamic Jurists and Clinicians into Dialogue,”
Zygon® 51, no. 3 (September 2016): 592–625; Mohammed Ali Albar, “Seeking
Remedy, Abstaining from Therapy and Resuscitation: An Islamic Perspective,”
Saudi Journal of Kidney Diseases and Transplantation 18, no. 4 (2007): 629–37.
97 Aasim I. Padela and Omar Qureshi, “Islamic Perspectives on Clinical
Intervention near the End-of-Life: We Can but Must We?,” Medicine, Health Care,
and Philosophy 20, no. 4 (December 2017): 545–59.
98 Attia, Towards Realization of the Higher Intents of Islamic Law.
99 Jonathan E. Brockopp, ed., Islamic Ethics of Life: Abortion, War, and Euthanasia
(Columbia, SC: South Carolina University Press, 2003); Al-Bar and Chamsi-
Pasha, Contemporary Bioethics.
100 Daniel Beck, “Between Relativism and Imperialism: Navigating Moral Diversity
in Cross-Cultural Bioethics,” Developing World Bioethics 15, no. 3 (December
2015): 162–71.
101 Я провокационно использую термин «исламизировать», имея в виду
проекты исламизации науки, осуществленные в прошлом веке, а термин
«миссионерская биоэтика» относится к тому, как светские силы экспор-
тируют ценности посредством работы в области биоэтики. См.: Raymond
De Vries and Leslie Rott, “Bioethics as Missionary Work: The Export of Western
Ethics to Developing Countries,” in Bioethics around the Globe, ed. Catherine
Myser (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 3–18.
«Картографирование мусульманского населения мира», 7 октября
2009 г., https://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/ mapping-the-global-muslimpopulation/.
2 Термин «биоэтика» имеет множество различных определений, однако это
широкая область исследований, охватывающая этические, социальные и
правовые вопросы, возникающие в сфере наук о жизни и биомедицине.
Дискурсы биоэтики, таким образом, возникают в самых разных условиях:
в больнице, дома, в средствах массовой информации и в законодательных
органах. Биоэтика как область знаний обширна и может рассматриваться
как состоящая из нескольких подобластей, включая клиническую меди-
цинскую этику (или медицинскую этику для краткости), которая фокуси-
руется на проблемах, возникающих на уровне пациента, семьи и врача в
процессе принятия решений о медицинском обслуживании. В данной
статье основное внимание будет уделено медицинской этике как сфере
применения моделей, основанных на высших целях исламского права.
См. также: Yacoub Ahmed, Abdassamad Clarke, and Abdel Aziz, The Fiqh of
Medicine: Responses in Islamic Jurisprudence to Development in Medical Science
(London: Ta-Ha, 2001); Abdulaziz Abdulhussein Sachedina, Islamic Biomedical
Ethics: Principles and Application (New-York: Oxford University Press, 2009);
Mohammed Ali Al-Bar and Hassan Chamsi-Pasha, Contemporary Bioethics
(Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2015); Alireza Bagheri and Khalid
Abdulla Al-Ali, Islamic Bioethics: Current Issues and Challenges (London: World
Scientific Publishing Europe Ltd., 2018); Aasim I. Padela, and Ebrahim Moosa,
Medicine and Shariah: A Dialogue in Islamic Bioethics (Notre Dame: University of
Notre Dame Press, 2020).
3 Morgan Clarke, Thomas Eich, and Jenny Schreiber, “The Social Politics of
Islamic Bioethics,” Die Welt Des Islams 55, no. 3–4 (November 2015): 265–77;
Aasim I. Padela, “Islamic Bioethics: Between Sacred Law, Lived Experiences, and
State Authority,” Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 34, no. 2 (April 2013): 65–80;
Mohammed Ghaly, “Islamic Bioethics: The Inevitable Interplay of ‘Texts’ and
‘Contexts’: Editorial,” Bioethics 28, no. 2 (February 2014): ii–v; Alireza Bagheri,
“Islamic Bioethics,” Asian Bioethics Review 3, no. 4 (2011): 313–15.
4 Aasim I. Padela, Hasan Shanawani, and Ahsan Arozullah, “Medical Experts &
Islamic Scholars Deliberating over Brain Death: Gaps in the Applied Islamic
Bioethics Discourse,” The Muslim World 101, no. 1 (2011): 53–72; Aasim I. Padela,
Ahsan Arozullah, and Ebrahim Moosa, “Brain Death in Islamic Ethico-Legal
Deliberation: Challenges for Applied Islamic Bioethics,” Bioethics 27, no. 3
(March 2013): 132–39; Aasim I. Padela, “Public Health Measures & Individualized
Decision-Making: The Confluence of the H1N1 Vaccine and Islamic Bioethics,”
Human Vaccines 6, no. 9 (September 2010): 12015.
5 Omar Hasan Kasule, “Biomedical Ethics: An Islamic Formulation,” Journal of the
Islamic Medical Association of North America 42, no. 1 (April 2010).
6 Gamal Eldin Attia, Towards Realization of the Higher Intents of Islamic Law:
Maqasid al-Shari`ah: A Functional Approach (Herndon, VA: International
Institute of Islamic Thought, 2007); Jasser Auda, Maqasid al-Shari`ah:
A Beginner’s Guide (London: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 2008).
7 Mohammad Hashim Kamali, Maqasid al-Shariah, Ijtihad and Civilisational
Renewal, Occasional Papers 20 (London: International Institute of Islamic
Thought, 2012); Jasser Auda, Maqasid al-Shariah as Philosophy of Islamic Law:
A Systems Approach (Washington D.C.: International Institute of Islamic
Thought, 2008).
8 Данная статья посвящена пересечению мак̣а̄с̣ид с решениями в области
медицинской или клинической этики, а не с более широкой областью
биоэтики.
9 Смерть мозга – это неверный термин и очень спорное понятие. Это не
полный отказ мозга с физиологической точки зрения, и критерии оценки
смерти мозга не требуют проверки всех его частей. Ее правильнее считать
прогностическим, а не диагностическим состоянием. В рамках данной
статьи я использую этот термин для обозначения клинического состояния
человека, соответствующего неврологическим критериям смерти в
определенной правовой юрисдикции. Важно понимать, что эти критерии
могут различаться в разных странах.
10 Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee, Theories of Islamic Law (Islamabad: Islamic Research
Institute, 2005); Ibrahim ibn Musa al-Shatibi, The Reconciliation of the
Fundamentals of Islamic Law, translated by Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee (Reading,
UK: Garnet Publications, 2011).
11 Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee, Islamic Jurisprudence: Usul al-Fiqh (Islamabad:
Islamic Research Institute, 2000); Subhi Ragab al-Mahmasani, Falsafat Al-Tashri
Fi Al-Islam = the Philosophy of Jurisprudence in Islam, transl. Farhat Jacob Ziadeh
(Leiden: Brill, 1961); Kamali, Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence.
12 Ahmad al-Raysuni, Imam Al-Shatibi’s Theory of the Higher Objectives and Intents
of Islamic Law, translated by Nancy N. Roberts, abridged by Alison Lake
(Herndon, VA: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 2013).
13 Tariq Ramadan, Radical Reform: Islamic Ethics and Liberation (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2009); Auda, Maqasid al-shari`ah; al-Raysuni, Imam Al-
Shatibi’s Theory of the Higher Objectives and Intents of Islamic Law.
14 Al-Raysuni, Imam Al-Shatibi’s Theory of the Higher Objectives and Intents of
Islamic Law, 284.
15 Shatibi, The Reconciliation of the Fundamentals of Islamic Law, 9.
16 Там же. С. 10.
17 Al-Raysuni, Imam Al-Shatibi’s Theory of the Higher Objectives and Intents of
Islamic Law.
18 Shatibi, The Reconciliation of the Fundamentals of Islamic Law, 319.
19 Там же. С. 14.
20 Там же.
21 Attia, Towards Realization of the Higher Intents of Islamic Law.
22 Ibid.; al-Raysuni, Imam Al-Shatibi’s Theory of the Higher Objectives and Intents of
Islamic Law.
23 Abul Fadl Mohsin Ebrahim, “Vaccination in the Context of Al-Maqasid al-
Shari`ah : Objectives of Divine Law and Islamic Medical Jurisprudence,” Arabian
Journal of Business and Management Review (Oman Chapter) 3, no. 9 (May 2014):
44–52; Shaikh Mohd Saifuddeen et al., “Maqasid al-shariah as a Complementary
Framework to Conventional Bioethics,” Science and Engineering Ethics 20, no. 2
(June 2014): 317–27; Omar Hasan Kasule, “Analysis of the Medical Decisions of the
International Fiqh Academy from the Perspectives of the Maqasid Al Shari’at and
Qawa’id Al Fiqh,” Integrated Medical Education Resources (blog), 2015,
https://omarkasule-tib.blogspot.com/2015/06/150309p-analysis-of-medicaldecisions.
html; Omar Hasan Kasule, “Understanding Basic Principles of Maqasid
Al Shari’at for Healthcare Workers,” Integrated Medical Education Resources (блог),
2009, https://omarkasule-tib.blogspot.com/2011/07/091018p-understanding- basic
principles.html; Omar Hasan Kasule, “Islamic Medical Ethics with Special
Reference to Maqasid al Shari’at,” 2007, http://ihcmalaysia.my/index.php/list-ofpublications/
38-maqasid-syariah; Omar Hasan Kasule, “The Application of
Maqasid Al Shari’at in Medical Practice,” Integrated Medical Education Resources
(blog), 2006, https://omarkasule-tib.blogspot. com/2011/05/0609p-application-ofmaqasid-
al-shariat.html; Bouhedda Ghalia et al., “Medical Ethics in the Light of
Maqāṣid al-sharīʿah: A Case Study of Medical Confidentiality,” Intellectual
Discourse 26, no. 1 (June 12, 2018): 133–60; Abdul Halim Ibrahim et al., “Tri-Parent
Baby Technology and Preservation of Lineage: An Analysis from the Perspective
of Maqasid al-shari’ah Based Islamic Bioethics,” Science and Engineering Ethics 25,
no. 1 (February 2019): 129–42; Abdul Halim Ibrahim, Noor Naemah Abdul
Rahman, and Shaikh Mohd Saifuddeen, “Maqasid al-shariah as a Complementary
Framework for Conventional Bioethics: Application in Malaysian Assisted
Reproductive Technology (ART) Fatwa,” Science and Engineering Ethics 24, no. 5
(October 2018): 1493–1502.
24 Я знаю, что такое преподавание ведется в медицинских образовательных
учреждениях Малайзии, а в последнее время и в Саудовской Аравии.
25 Хотя во многих фата̄ва̄, ориентированных на медицину, есть ссылки на
мак̣а̄с̣ид, чаще всего они приводятся для того, чтобы подкрепить этичес-
кие заключения, основанные на фик̣хе. Кроме того, с учетом жанра, такие
тексты коротки и не содержат подробностей о дискуссионных моделях,
использующих мак̣а̄с̣ид. Поэтому я ограничил свои источники исследова-
ния существующей литературой по исламской биоэтике на английском
языке, которая дает возможность более глубокого анализа и представляет
собой попытку мусульманских ученых привлечь к сотрудничеству
современные заинтересованные стороны медицинской этики.
26 В то же время, поскольку в фокусе моего исследования были научные
труды, рассматривающие медицинскую этику с перспективы мак̣а̄с̣идӣ,
источники, которые я использовал, могут не полностью представлять
каждую теоретическую модель. Необходимо более полное исследование,
чтобы всесторонне рассмотреть, как ученые, опираясь на труды аш-
Шаqт̣ибӣ, работали над созданием более новых моделей мак̣а̄с̣ид аш-
шарӣ‘а.
27 Kasule, “Biomedical Ethics,” 39.
28 Там же.
29 Siti Hafsyah Idris, Abu Bakar Abdul Majeed, and Lee Wei Chang, “Beyond Halal:
Maqasid al-Shari’ah to Assess Bioethical Issues Arising from Genetically
Modified Crops,” Science and Engineering Ethics 26, no. 3 (June 2020): 1463–76.
30 Kasule, “Integrated Medical Education Resources.”
31 Там же.
32 Там же.
33 Там же.
34 Там же.
35 Там же.; Kasule, “Biomedical Ethics”; Saifuddeen и др., “Maqasid al-Shariah as a
Complementary Framework to Conventional Bioethics”; Kasule, “Integrated
Medical Education Resources.”
36 Saifuddeen et al., “Maqasid al-Shariah as a Complementary Framework to
Conventional Bioethics,” 324.
37 Kasule, “Biomedical Ethics.”
38 Abdul Halim Ibrahim et al., “Maqasid al-Shariah Based Islamic Bioethics:
A Comprehensive Approach,” Journal of Bioethical Inquiry 16, no. 3 (September
2019): 333–45.
39 Saifuddeen et al., “Maqasid al-shariah as a Complementary Framework to
Conventional Bioethics.”
40 Ibrahim et al., “Maqasid al-Shariah Based Islamic Bioethics.”
41 Saifuddeen et al., “Maqasid al-Shariah as a Complementary Framework to
Conventional Bioethics”; Ibrahim, Rahman, and Saifuddeen, “Maqasid al-Shariah
as a Complementary Framework for Conventional Bioethics.”
42 Ebrahim, “Vaccination in the Context of Al-Maqasid al-Shari`ah.”
43 Ghalia et al., “Medical Ethics in the Light of Maqāṣid al-Sharīʿah.”
44 M.M. Nordin, “Immunisation from the Perspective of Maqasid Shariah,”
Bangladesh Journal of Medical Science 15, no. 2 (n.d.): 151–53.
45 Kasule, “Integrated Medical Education Resources,” 3.
46 Saifuddeen et al., “Maqasid al-Shariah as a Complementary Framework to
Conventional Bioethics”; Kasule, “Integrated Medical Education Resources.”
47 Omar Hasan Kasule, “Islamic Medical Ethics with Special Reference to Maqasid
al Shari’at,” 2007, http://ihcmalaysia.my/index.php/list-of-publications/38-
maqasid-syariah.
48 Saifuddeen et al., “Maqasid al-Shariah as a Complementary Framework to
Conventional Bioethics.”
49 Ebrahim, “Vaccination in the Context of Al-Maqasid al-Shari`ah.”
50 Ibrahim, Rahman, and Saifuddeen, “Maqasid al-shariah as a Complementary
Framework for Conventional Bioethics,” 1496.
51 Ibid.; Ibrahim et al., “Maqasid al-shariah Based Islamic Bioethics”; Ibrahim et al.,
“Tri-Parent Baby Technology and Preservation of Lineage.”
52 Ghaiath Hussein, “What Can Ethics Learn from Islamic Legislation? An Islamic
Approach to Moral Analysis Based on the Purposes of Islamic Legislation
(Maqsid al-Shariya’a).”
53 Attia, Towards Realization of the Higher Intents of Islamic Law.
54 Auda, Maqasid al-shariah as Philosophy of Islamic Law; Ramadan, Radical
Reform; Attia, Towards Realization of the Higher Intents of Islamic Law; Y. al-
Qaradawi, “Medicine Containing Alcohol for Preservation Purposes.,” Halal
Industry Development Corporation, accessed 2020, http://www.hdcglobal.com/
publisher/pid/219ab653-c702-49b4-8598-ebb11c060596/container//contentId/
f7f596a7-b417-4e7d-bdb2-06df1441629e; Yusuf Al-Qaradawi, The Lawful and the
Prohibited in Islam (Kuala Lumpur: Islamic Book Trust, 2013).
55 Attia, Towards Realization of the Higher Intents of Islamic Law, 2007.
56 Там же.
57 Там же. С. 11.
58 Там же. С. 195.
59 Там же. С. 119.
60 Там же.
61 Там же. С. 122.
62 Там же. С. 32.
63 Там же.
64 Ramadan, Radical Reform, 142.
65 Там же. С. 136.
66 Там же. С. 136.
67 Там же. С. 138.
68 Там же. С. 136.
69 Там же. С. 139.
70 Tariq Ramadan, “The Challenges and Future of Applied Islamic Ethics Discourse:
A Radical Reform?,” Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 34, no. 2 (April 2013):
105–15.
71 Ramadan, Radical Reform, 159.
72 Там же. С. 176.
73 Очень важно признать, что теория аш-Шаqт̣ибӣ связана с Писанием. Он
использует индукцию, чтобы вывести главные человеческие интересы;
таким образом, его теория основана на текстах Писания. Однако эта
модель не обращается непосредственно к этим священным текстам.
74 Ebrahim, “Vaccination in the Context of Al-Maqasid al-Shari`ah”; Kamali,
Maqasid al-Shariah, Ijtihad and Civilisational Renewal; Aasim I. Padela, “The
Essential Dimensions of Health According to the Maqasid al-shariʿah
Frameworks of Abu Ishaq al-Shatibi and Jamal-al-Din-ʿAtiyah,” IIUM Medical
Journal Malaysia 17, no. 1 (July 2018).
75 Al-Raysuni, Imam Al-Shatibi’s Theory of the Higher Objectives and Intents of
Islamic Law.
76 Nyazee, Theories of Islamic Law.
77 Padela, “The Essential Dimensions of Health According to the Maqasid al-
Shariʿah Frameworks of Abu Ishaq al-Shatibi and Jamal-al-Din-ʿAtiyah.”
78 Aasim I. Padela, “The Perspectives of Islamic Jurists on the Brain Death as Legal
Death in Islam,” Journal of Religion and Health 55, no. 4 (August 2016): 1215–17;
Padela, Arozullah, and Moosa, “Brain Death in Islamic Ethico-Legal
Deliberation”; Padela, Shanawani, and Arozullah, “Medical Experts & Islamic
Scholars Deliberating over Brain Death”; Johannes Grundmann, “Shari`ah, Brain
Death, and Organ Transplantation: The Context and Effect of Two Islamic Legal
Decisions in the Near and Middle East,” American Journal of Islam and Society 22,
no. 4 (October 1, 2005): 1–25; Birgit Krawietz, “Brain Death and Islamic
Traditions: Shifting Borders of Life?,” in Islamic Ethics of Life: Abortion, War, and
Euthanasia, ed. Jonathan E Brockopp (Columbia, SC: Universuty of South
Carolina Press, 2003), 194–213; Andrew C. Miller, Amna Ziad-Miller, and Elamin
M. Elamin, “Brain Death and Islam,” Chest 146, no. 4 (October 2014): 1092–1101.
79 Majid Esmaeilzadeh et al., “One Life Ends, Another Begins: Management of a
Brain-Dead Pregnant Mother-A Systematic Review,” BMC Medicine 8, no. 1
(December 2010): 74; Abuhasna Said et al., “A Brain-Dead Pregnant Woman with
Prolonged Somatic Support and Successful Neonatal Outcome: A Grand Rounds
Case with a Detailed Review of Literature and Ethical Considerations,”
International Journal of Critical Illness and Injury Science 3, no. 3 (2013): 220.
80 American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, “Periviable Birth,” 2019,
https://www.acog.org/en/clinical/clinical-guidance/obstetric-careconsensus/
articles/2017/10/periviable-birth.
81 Farhat Moazam, “Islamic Perspectives on Abortion,” Bioethics Links 1, no. 2
(2005): 3–4; Muhammad ibn Adam Al-Kawthari, Birth Control & Abortion in
Islam (Santa Barbara, Calif.: White Thread Press, 2006); Alireza Bagheri and Leila
Afshar, “Abortion in Different Islamic Jurisprudence: Case Commentaries,” Asian
Bioethics Review 3, no. 4 (2011): 351–55; Rhami Khorfan and Aasim I. Padela,
“The Bioethical Concept of Life for Life: Abortion When the Mother’s Life Is in
Danger in Judaism, Catholicism, and Islam,” Journal of the Islamic Medical
Association of North America 42, no. 3 (December 26, 2010): 99–105; KM Hedayat,
P. Shooshtarizadeh, and M. Raza, “Therapeutic Abortion in Islam: Contemporary
Views of Muslim Shiite Scholars and Effect of Recent Iranian Legislation,”
Journal of Medical Ethics 32, no. 11 (November 1, 2006): 652–57; H. Hathout,
“Abortion and Islam,” Bulletin De La Societe Libanaise D’histoire De La Medecine,
no. 3 (1992): 85–89; Oren Asman, “Abortion in Islamic Countries: Legal and
Religious Aspects,” Medicine and Law 23 (2004): 73–89.
82 С другой стороны, если бы это считалось состоянием смерти, то принцип
сохранения жизни не касался бы матери. Тогда следовало бы обратиться к
принципам более низкого порядка. Однако поддержание жизни матери
благоприятствует сохранению жизни плода, следовательно, можно
утверждать, что принцип сохранения жизни остается применимым, даже
если мать считается мертвой.
83 Предыдущее примечание применимо и здесь.
84 Robert D. Truog, “Brain Death: Too Flawed to Endure, Too Ingrained to
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85 Ayman Shihadeh, “Introduction: The Ontology of the Soul in Medieval Arabic
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for Theism and the Principle of Soul: Framing the Issue for Further Islamic Inquiry,
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Islamic Theological Discourse,” The New Bioethics 24, no. 2 (May 4, 2018): 158–
75; Timothy J. Gianotti, Al-Ghazali’s Unspeakable Doctrine of the Soul: Unveiling
the Esoteric Psychology and Eschatology of the Ihya, Brill’s Studies in Intellectual
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86 Al-Kawthari, Birth Control & Abortion in Islam; Moazam, “Islamic Perspectives
on Abortion”; Marion Katz, “The Problem of Abortion in Classical Sunni Fiqh,” в
Islamic Ethics of Life: Abortion, War, and Euthanasia, ред. John Brockopp
(Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 2003), 25–50; Thomas Eich,
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16, no. 3–4 (2009): 302–36; Muhammed V. Stodolsky and Aasim I. Padela,
“Abortion in Hanafi Law,” in Abortion: Global Positions and Practices, Religious
and Legal Perspectives, ed. Alireza Bagheri (Cham: Springer, 2021), 127–36;
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Perspectives,” Zygon® 47, no. 1 (March 2012): 175–213.
87 Moosa, “Languages of Change in Islamic Law”; Padela, Arozullah, and Moosa,
“Brain Death in Islamic Ethico-Legal Deliberation.”
88 Margaret Lock, “On Dying Twice: Culture, Technology and the Determination of
Death,” in Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies: Intersections of
Inquiry, ed. Margaret Lock, Allan Young and Alberto Cambrosio (Cambridge
University Press, 2000), 233.
89 Aasim I. Padela, “Social Responsibility and the State’s Duty to Provide
Healthcare: An Islamic Ethico-Legal Perspective,” Developing World Bioethics 17,
no. 3 (December 2017): 205–14; Padela, “The Essential Dimensions of Health
According to the Maqasid al-Shariʿah Frameworks of Abu Ishaq al-Shatibi and
Jamal-al-Din-ʿAtiyah.”
90 Abrar Khan, “Brain Death Legislation and Organ Transplantation in the Islamic
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91 Blair Wendlandt et al., “Modifiable Elements of ICU Supportive Care and
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Care Unit,” Journal of Critical Care 32 (April 2016): 79–84; Cynthia J. Gries et al.,
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Sachedina, “Brain Death in Islamic Jurisprudence”, 2009,
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Islamic Traditions.”
93 Padela, “The Perspectives of Islamic Jurists on the Brain Death as Legal Death in
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94 Padela, Arozullah, and Moosa, “Brain Death in Islamic Ethico-Legal Deliberation.”
95 На это можно возразить, что поскольку цитируемые мною правила ка-
саются небеременных пациенток, достигших состояния физиологической
смерти мозга, в данном случае они не применимы. Таким образом, для
этого сценария нужны новые правила. Хотя это может быть и так, суть в
том, чтобы показать некоторый потенциальный диссонанс между
устоявшимся фик̣хом и представленными методами медицинской этики,
основанными на мак̣а̄с̣ид. Сторонники основанного на мак̣а̄с̣ид анализа
могут утверждать, что его роль заключается в мотивировании новых
правил, и что диссонанс является положительной чертой этих моделей
медицинской этики. В этом рассуждении есть определенный смысл.
96 Omar Qureshi and Aasim I. Padela, “When Must a Patient Seek Healthcare?
Bringing the Perspectives of Islamic Jurists and Clinicians into Dialogue,”
Zygon® 51, no. 3 (September 2016): 592–625; Mohammed Ali Albar, “Seeking
Remedy, Abstaining from Therapy and Resuscitation: An Islamic Perspective,”
Saudi Journal of Kidney Diseases and Transplantation 18, no. 4 (2007): 629–37.
97 Aasim I. Padela and Omar Qureshi, “Islamic Perspectives on Clinical
Intervention near the End-of-Life: We Can but Must We?,” Medicine, Health Care,
and Philosophy 20, no. 4 (December 2017): 545–59.
98 Attia, Towards Realization of the Higher Intents of Islamic Law.
99 Jonathan E. Brockopp, ed., Islamic Ethics of Life: Abortion, War, and Euthanasia
(Columbia, SC: South Carolina University Press, 2003); Al-Bar and Chamsi-
Pasha, Contemporary Bioethics.
100 Daniel Beck, “Between Relativism and Imperialism: Navigating Moral Diversity
in Cross-Cultural Bioethics,” Developing World Bioethics 15, no. 3 (December
2015): 162–71.
101 Я провокационно использую термин «исламизировать», имея в виду
проекты исламизации науки, осуществленные в прошлом веке, а термин
«миссионерская биоэтика» относится к тому, как светские силы экспор-
тируют ценности посредством работы в области биоэтики. См.: Raymond
De Vries and Leslie Rott, “Bioethics as Missionary Work: The Export of Western
Ethics to Developing Countries,” in Bioethics around the Globe, ed. Catherine
Myser (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 3–18.
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Jun 5, 2025
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How to Cite
ПАДЕЛА, А. (2025). Мак̣ас̣идӣ модели для «исламской» медицинской этики: решение проблем или замешательство у постели больного?. American Journal of Islam and Society, 39(1--2), 81–124. https://doi.org/10.35632/ajis.v39i1--2.3797
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